1. Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 9.
2. Alexander Dallin, "The Causes of the Collapse of the Soviet Union," Post - Soviet Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1992), 279.
3. Fidel Castro quoted by Andrew Murray, Flashpoint: World War III (London: Pluto Press, 1996), 38.
4. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: The Soviet Economy Today (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), passim; USSR: 100 Questions and Answers (Moscow: Novosti, 1977), 60, 63; Albert Szymanski, Class Structure: A Critical Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1983), 590.
5. Perlo, 144; USSR: 100 Questions and Answers, 65 - 66, 71.
6. Szymanski, 586 - 592.
7. Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" and Frederick Engels, "Introduction," in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Selected Works in Two Volumes (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1962), 473 - 545.
8. Edward Boorstein, Aliende 's Chile (New York: International Publishers, 1977).
9. Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History? (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 125 - 12.7.
10. Eric Hobsbawm, On History (New York: The New Press, 1997), 243 - 249.
11. Omar Noman, ed. Poverty in Transition (New York: United Nations Development Pro -
gram, 1998), 6.
12. Stephen F. Cohen, Failed Crusade (New York and London: - W. W. Norton, 2000), 40 - 42.
13. Marx and Engels, 485, 542.
1. Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1988), 80.
2. Albert Resis, ed., Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago; Ivan R. Dee, 1993), 360.
3. Resis. 408.
4. "Socialism in the Soviet Union: Lesson and Perspectives, From the Program of the Fourth
Congress of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation 20 April 1997," Nature, Society, and Thought (May 2, 2000), 421.
5. Lenin Collected Works, ed. Yuri Sdobnikov, vol. 32 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 165 - 240.
6. Lenin Collected Works, vol. 33, 63.
7. Lenin Collected Works, vol. 32, 218.
8. Vladimir I. Lenin: A Political Biography (New York: International Publishers, 1943), 242 - 259.
9. Barrington Moore, Jr., Soviet Politics - The Dilemma of Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), 98 - 102.
10. Moore, 102 - 108.
11. Analoly Cherynaev, My Six Years with Gorbachev (University Park: Pennsylvania State
University Press, 2000), 138 - 139.
12. Kenneth Cameron, Stalin: Man of Contradiction (Toronto: New Canada Publications, 1987), 30.
13. Moore, 108 - 113.
14. E. H. Carr, Studies in Revolution (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964)', 214 - 215.
15. Joseph Stalin, "The Right Deviation in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union," in Joseph Stalin, Leninism: Selected Writings (New York: International Publishers, 1942), 98 - 101.
16. George Katkov, The Trial of Bukharin (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 55 - 60.
17. V. Y. Zevin, "Lenin on the National and Colonial Questions," in Lenin the Great Theoretician (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1970), 307 - 308.
18. V. Zolov, Lenin's Doctrine of National Liberation Revolutions and Modern World (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1983), 15,21.
19. Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National and Colonial Question (New York: International
Publishers, 1934).
20. Albert Nenarokov and Alexander Proskurin, How the Soviet Union Solved the Nationalities Question (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1983), 11.
21. Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1973), 35 - 38.
22. Stalin, 185, 177, 168 - 170.
23. Yitzhak M. Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953 - 1991 (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1998), 42.
24. Bahman Azad, Heroic Struggle Bitter Defeat (New York: International Publishers, 2000), 92 - 95.
25. Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York: Vintage Books, 1971),515.
26. Werner G. Hahn, Postwar Soviet Politics: The Fall of Zhdanov and the Defeat of Moderation, 1946 - 1953 (Ithaca and London; Cornell University Press, 1982), 12 - 13, 19 - 27.
27. Hahn, 32 - 33, 45 - 57,182 - 184.
28. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York and London: W. W. Norton,2003), 250 - 255.
29. Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores Medvedev, Khrushchev; The Years in Power (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), 67 - 71.
30. Medvedev and Medvedev, 71.
31. Taubman, 324.
32. Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 224.
33. Hahn, 47.
34. Roy Medvedev, Khrushchev (London and New York: Blackwell and Doubleday, 1982), 32.
35. Medvedev and Medvedev, 35, 58 - 60.
36. Maurice Dobb, Soviet Economic Development Since 1917 (New York: New World Paperbacks, 1965), 317,332.
37. Joseph Stalin, Economic Problems. - of the U.S.S.R. (New York: International Publishers, 1952), 21 - 22.
38. Hans Heinz Holz, "The Downfall and Future of Socialism," Nature, Society, and Thought, 5, no. 3 (1992), passim.
39. Holz, 105.
40. Holz, 105.
41. Resis, 391.
42. Giuseppe Boffa, Inside the Khrushchev Era (New York: Marzani and Munsell, 1959), 108.
43. Boffa, 110.
44. Medvedev and Medvedev, 75.
45. Alexei Adzhubei quoted by Linden, 225.
46. Roger Pethybridge, A Kev to Soviet Politics: The Crisis of the 'Anti - Party' Group (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1962), 93 - 98.
47. Resis, 345 - 347; Molotov and Malenkov quoted by Pethybridge, 98 - 99.
48. Pethybridge, 95, 103 - 109; Shapiro, 569.
49. Taubman, xix.
50. Cameron, 130.
51. Michael Parenti, BIackshirts & Reds (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1997), 76 - 80. 52 "Secret Speech of Khrushchev Concerning the “Cult of the Individual” in The Anti - Stalin Campaign and International Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), 2 - 89; Cameron. 121 - 137, 170.
53. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin (New York, Pantheon, 1993), •2;84.n
54. Cameron, 123.
55. Gerald Meyer, "The Virgin Lands Project, 1953 - 1963: Khrushchev's Panacea for the 'Soviet Union's Agricultural Crisis," (M.A. thesis. City College of the City University of New York, 1969).
56. Meyer, 35 - 37.
57. Stalin, 16 - 17.
58. Medvedev and Medvedev, 85 –88.
59. Dobb, 372 - 377.
60. Alex Nove. An Economic History of the USSR (New York: Viking Penguin, 1984), 358.
61. Medvedev and Medvedev, 106 - 107.
62. Dobb, 321, 324.
63. Dobb, 329 - 330.
64. J. P: Neitl, The Soviet Achievement (Norwich, England: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1967), 236.
65. Brudny,42 – 43.
66. Medvedev and Medvedev, 73, 148.
67. Medvedev and Medvedev, 43.
68. A Proposal Concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1963), 5 - 36.
69. Joseph Stalin, For Peaceful Coexistence: Postwar Interviews (New York: International PPublishers, 1951).
70. In contrast, the Chinese, who were the most vigorous critics of Soviet foreign policy for not being sufficiently anti - imperialist stood silently on the sidelines during this confrontation and afterwards spoke up only to criticize the Soviets. O. B. Borisov and B. T. Koloskov, Sino - Soviet Relations (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 173.
71. Taubmnan, 336 - 337, 450 - 451, 609 - 610; Kirby quoted by Taubman, 337.
72. Shapiro, 575.
73. Linden, 224.'
74. Azad,128 - 131.
75. George Breslauer, "Khrushchev Reconsidered," in Stephen F. Cohen et al., eds., The Soviet Union Since Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), 56, 59.
76. Medvedev and Medvedev, 151, 153.
77. John Gooding. Socialism in Russia: Lenin and his Legacy, 1890 - 1991 (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 187 - 209.
78. Dmitri Volkogonov. Autopsy for an Empire (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Singapore: The Free Press, 1998), 262, 264, 302, 320, 324; Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 215, 217; Roy Medvedev, "Brezhnev: a Political Sketch - Portrait," in Leonid Brezhnev: The Period of Stagnation (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1989), 6, 9.
79. Pravda quoted by Breslauer, 64.
80. Fedor Burlatsky, "Brezhnev and the End of the Thaw," in Leonid Brezhnev: The Period of Stagnation, 38.
81. Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina vanden Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: W, W, Norton, 1989), 20.
82. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: The Soviet Economy Today (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), 331.
83. Abel Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), 45, 52 - 53, 90.
84. Victor and Ellen Perlo, 275.
85. Victor Perlo, Super Profits and Crises: Modern U.S. Capitalism (New York: International Publishers. 1988), 491.
86. Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika, 3, 23, 67, 71.
87. Leonid Brezhnev, We Are Optimists: Report of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to the 26th Congress of the CPSU (New York: International Publishers, 1981), 57.
88. Ligachev, 211 - 212, 219.
89. Brudny, 15 - 17.
90. Victor and Ellen Perlo, 284.
91. Moshe Lewin. Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1975), xiii.
92. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), ix, 4.
93. Perlo, 260 - 280.
94. Perlo, 260 - 280.
95. Perlo, 282, 284.
96. Zhores Medvedev, Andropov (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1983), 17 - 54; Martin Ebon, The Andropov File (New York et al.: McGraw - Hill, 1983), 272 - 273.
97. Ebon, 17 - 22, 70 - 71, 86 - 92,109.
98. Ebon, 64 - 74; Zhores Medvedev, 32 - 40; Herbert Aptheker, The Truth About Hungary (New York: Mainstream Publishers, 1957), 184 - 246.
99. Ebon, 64 - 74; Zhores Medvedev, 32 - 40.
100. Ebon. 70 - 71, 32, 24, 104; Zhores Medvedev, 32 - 40, 64 - 65.
101. Ebon, 22, 24, 27, 29, 65.
102. Quoted by Zhores Medvedev, 87.
103. Ligachev, 27.
104. Zhores Medvedev, 146; Ebon, 119.
105. Yuri Andropov, "The Better We Work, the Better We Will Live" (November 22, 1982) in Ebon, 239 - 249; Y. V. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (December 21, 1982), (Moscow: Novosti, 1983); Yuri Andropov, Analysis of the Existing Situation and Landmarks for the Future, (June 15, 1983), (Moscow: Novosti, 1983); Yuri Andropov, "Karl Marx's Teaching and Some of the Problems in the Building of Socialism in the USSR," (1983) in A Reader on Social Sciences (Moscow: Progress, 1985), 395 - 419.
106. Martin Ebon, The Andropov File: The Life and Ideas of Yuri Andropov General Secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR (New York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto and Mexico: McGraw - Hill Book Company, 1983), 239 - 249.
107. Andropov, Analysis, 12.
108. Andropov, Analysis, 17.
109. Andropov in Ebon, 241.
110. Andropov in Ebon, 241.
111. Andropov in Ebon, 241.
112. Ebon,136 - 137.
113. Zhores Medvedev, 134.
114. Medvedev, 131 - 133.
115. Andropov, "Karl Marx's Teaching", 407.
116. Ebon,186.
117. Ebon, 173, 174, 193, 205, 208.
118. Andropov in Ebon, 246.
119. Ebon, 238.
120. Andrei Gromyko, Memoirs (New York, et al.: Doubleday, 1989), 247.
121. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence (New York: Times Books/Random House, 1995), 444.
122. Jonathan Harris, The Public Politics of Aleksandr Nikolaevich Yakovlev, 1983 - 1989, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, No. 901 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies, 1990), 12.
123. Andropov quoted by Dobrynin, 512.
124. Ebon, 234.
125. Dobrynin, 478.
126. Ligachev, 148.
127. Ebon,118.
128. Andropov, Analysis, 18.
129. Ligachev, 28.
130. Andropov, Analysis.
131. Ebon, 26.
132. Ebon,152, 201, 166,168, 199.
133. Ebon, 192, 203,219, 230.
134. Andropov, "Karl Marx's Teaching," 400 - 401.
135. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary, 11 - 21.
136. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary, 18.
137. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary, 18—19.
138. Volkogonov, 332, 370, 387.
1. Gregory Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty: Historical Role of the Soviet Underground," in Stephen S. Cohen, et al., eds. The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1988), 24 - 25.
2. Vladimir G. Treml and Michael Alexeev, "The Growth of the Second Economy in the Soviet Union and Is Impact on the System." in Robert W. Campbell, ed., The Postcommunist Economic Transformation (Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford: Westview Press, 1994), 222.
3. Quoted by Treml and Alexeev, 238.
4. Moshe Lewin, Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates, from Bukharin to the Modern Reformers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 254.
5. Gregory Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," Problems of Communism (September - October, 1977), 25.
6. Maurice Dobb. Soviet Economic Development Since 1917 (New York: International Publishers, 1966).
7. According to Anders Aslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 5, by the 1960s three of the four leading academic economic institutions were dominated by economists who favored "money commodity relations" or simply "market relations." Koriagina, who was the leading Soviet expert on the second economy, belonged to the Economic Research Institute, which until 1986 was headed by the anti - market economist, Tigran Khachaturov. Gregory Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of The Soviet Underground," in Stephen S. Cohen et al., eds. The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 36.
8. G. A. Kozlov, ed., Political Economy: Socialism (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977); L. Leontyev, Political Economy: A Condensed Course (New York: International, 1974); P. I. Nikitin, The Fundamentals of Political Economy (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1983); G. S. Sarkisyants, ed. Soviet Economy: Results and Prospects (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977); and Yuri Popov, Essays in Political Economy (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1985).
9. Joseph Stalin, "Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR," in Bruce Franklin, The Essential Stalin (New York: Anchor Books, 1972), 445 - 481.
10. Victor Perlo, How the Soviet Economy Works (New York: International, 1961), 34.
11. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: The Soviet Economy Today (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980).
12. "List of Berkeley - Duke Occasional Papers in the Second Economy in the USSR with Abstracts and Notes," @ Berkeley - Duke Home Page.
13. Gregory Grossman, "The Second Economy in the USSR and Eastern Europe: A Bibliography," (Berkeley - Duke Occasional Papers on the Second Economy of the USSR, July 1990).
14. Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," 25 - 27.
15. Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," 26 - 27.
16. Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," 35.
17. Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," 29 - 30.
18. Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," 30.
19. Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," 31.
20. Konstantin Simis, USSR: The Corrupt Society: The Secret World of Soviet Capitalism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 145 - 147.
21. "Vladimir G. Treml, "Purchase of Food from Private Sources in Soviet Urban Areas," Berkeley - Duke Occasional Paper, September 1985).
22. Gregory Grossman, "A Tonsorial View of the Soviet Second Economy," (Berkeley – Duke Occasional Paper, December 1985).
23. Vladimir G. Treml, "Alcohol in the Soviet Underground Economy," (Berkeley - Duke Occasional Paper, December 1985).
24. Michael V. Alexeev, "The Underground Market for Gasoline in the USSR," (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, (April 1987).
25. Michael V. Alexeev, "Expenditures on Privately Rented Housing and Imputed Rents in the USSR," (Berkeley - Duke Occasional Paper, November 1991).
26. Kimberly C. Neuhauser, "The Second Economy in Funeral Services," (Berkeley – Duke Occasional Paper, February 1992).
27. Clifford G. Gaddy, "The Size of the Prostitution Market in the USSR," (Berkeley – Duke Occasional Paper," November 1989) and Kimberly C. Neuhauser, "The Market for Illegal Drugs in the Soviet Union in the Late 1980s," (Berkeley - Duke Occasional Paper, November 1990).
28. Marina Kurkchiyan, "The Transformation of the Second Economy in the Informal Economy," in Alena V. Ledeneva and Marina Kurkchiyan, eds. Economic Crime in Russia (The Hague, London, and Boston: Kluwer Law International, 2000), 86 - 87.
29. Treml and Alexeev, 221, 235.
30. Byung - Yeon Kim, "Informal Economy Activities of Soviet Households: Size and Dynamics," (PERSA Working Paper No. 26, University of Warwick, 29 January 2003), 9.
31. Tatiana Koriagina, "The Shadow Economy of the USSR," izd - vo Pravda 3 (1990): 113 [in Russian].
32. Gregory Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of the Soviet Underground," in Stephen S. Cohen et al., The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California), 1998), 36.
33. Tremi and Alexeev, 224 - 225, 239.
34. Gregory Grossman, "Sub - Rosa Privatization and Marketizatibn in the USSR," Annals, ASPSS (January, 1990), 49.
35. Gregory Grossman, "Sub - Rosa Privatization," 49.
36. Byung - Yeon Kim, 6, 9.
37. Estimates developed by Gregory Grossman, in "The Second Economy: Boon or Bane for the Reform of the First Economy?" in Economic Reforms in the Socialist World, Stanislaw Gomulka et al., eds., (London: Macmillan, 1989), 94.
According to Grossman, "Some idea of the magnitude of informal (or private) incomes in the USSR can be grasped from the findings of a questionnaire survey of 1000 recent Soviet emigres in the United States, conducted by Professor V. G. Tremi and the present author [Gregory Grossman]. The data center on 1977 and refer only to urban areas. The figures presented refer only to families in which both husband and wife were present and at least one of them was officially employed at the time." In Grossman's view the second economy continued to grow after the late 1970s. The table suggests that by the late Brezhnev era, the second economy was roughly about 30 percent of the largest republic, Russia, and about 40 percent of the other major Slavic republics, Ukraine and Belorussia. In other parts of the USSR for which data were available to him, the second economy was even larger, perhaps even equaling or outweighing the 'first' - the planned, state – owned economy.
38. Simis, 153; Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty," 39 - 40.
39. Kirn, 12, 23.
40. Brezhnev quoted by David Pryce - Jones, The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 53.
41. Gregory Grossman, "Inflationary, Political, and Social Implications of the Current Economic Slowdown," in Hans - Hermann Hoehmann, Alex Nove, and Heinrich Vogel, Economics and Politics in the USSR (Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1986), 192.
42. Michael Alexeev, "The Russian Underground Economy in Transition," in Michael Walker, ed. The Underground Economy: Global Evidence of its Size and Impact (Vancouver, Canada: Fraser Institute, 1997), 259.
43. Treml and Alexeev, 225; Valery M. Rutgaizer, "The Shadow Economy in the USSR," (Berkeley - Duke Occasional Papers on the Second Economy in the USSR, No. 34, February 1992), 41.
44. Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty," 31.
45. Rutgaizer, 6.
46. Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty," 31.
47. Alexeev, 255 - 256.
48. Treml and Alexeev, 238.
49. Alexeev, 260.
50. Alexeev, 261.
51. Simis, 179.
52. Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Soviet Economy in a Time of Change, report entitled "Notes on the Illegal Private Economy and Corruption" by Gregory Grossman, 96 Cong., 1 sess., 1979, Committee Print, pp. 840 - 841.
53. Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty," 32.
54. Pryce - Jones, 51 - 55, 377 - 83.
55. Simis, 47 - 48.
56. Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty," quoting Andrei Grachev, 34.
57. Stephen Handelman, Comrade Criminal: Russia's New Mafiya (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 56.
58. Kozlov quoted by John and Margrit Pittman, Peaceful Coexistence: Its Theory and Practice in the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers, 1964), 69.
59. Alexeev, 261.
60. Alena V. Ledeneva, Russia's Economy of Favours (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
61. Gregory Grossman, "The Second Economy of the USSR," Problems of Communism Vol. XXVI, No. 5 (September - October, 1977):
62. Georgy Shakhnazarov, The Destiny of the World (Moscow: Progress, 1978), 121 - 122.
63. S. Frederic Starr, "A Usable Past," in Alexander Dallin and Gail W. Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System from Crisis to Collapse (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), 14 - 15,
64. Rutgaizer, 19 - 22.
65. Rutgaizer, 7, 10 - 13.
66. Rutgaizer, 7 - 10.
67. John Gooding, Socialism in Russia: Lenin and his Legacy, 1890 - 1991 (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 208.
68. Victor Trushkov, "The Place of the Restoration of Capitalism in the Historic Process", International Correspondence (English language edition), 2 (2000), 33 - 34.
1. Mike Davidow, Perestroika, (New York: International Publishers, 1993), 8.
2. Albert Resis, ed., Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), 373.
3. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), 44.
4. Oleg Kalugin, The First Directorate New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 292 - 293.
5. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich, The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System (Armonk, New York and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), 12, 30, 31, 35, 38.
6. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), 16.
7. Gennady Zyuganov, My Russia (Armonk, New York, and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 54.
8. Abel Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), 68.
9. Aganbegyan, 23.
10. Fred Halliday, "A Singular Collapse: The Soviet Union, Market Pressure and Inter – State Competition," Contention Magazine (1992), 324.
11. Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 217.
12. Gorbachev, Memoirs, (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 10 - 11.
13. Sean Gervasi, "A Full Court Press: The Destabilization of the Soviet Union," Covert Action, Fall 1990, 21 - 26.
14. Peter Schweizer, Victory: The Reagan Administration's Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1994), xviii—xix.
15. Schweizer, 76, 86 - 87, 88 - 89, 150, 153, 188, 193 - 194, 215.
16. Schweizer, 93 - 94, 140 - 141, 154, 195, 242 - 243.
17. Schweizer, 72, 109, 125 - 126, 139, 188.
18. Arch Puddington, Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 223,288; Gene Sosin, Sparks of Liberty: An Insider's Memoir of Radio Liberty (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), 196, 198, 203, 205.
19. Gervasi, 22, fn. 15.
20. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York, et al.: Simon & Schuster, 2000,) 19, 148 - 149.
21. Fitzgerald, 148.
22. Schweitzer, 197.
23. Euvgeny Novikov and Patrick Bascio, Gorbachev, and the Collapse, of the Soviet Communist Party (New York: Peter Lang, 1994), 31.
24. T. H. Rigby, The Changing Soviet System: Mono - organizational Socialism from Its Origins to Gorbachev's Restructuring (Aldershot, England and Brookfield, Vermont: Canberra University College), 211.
25. Rigby, 211.
26. Helene Carrere D'Encausse, The End of the Soviet Empire (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 12 - 13.
27. Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 52 - 67.
28. D'Agostino, 76.
29. Vladimir Yegorov, Out of a Dead End Into the Unknown: Notes on Gorbachev's Perestroika (Chicago, Berlin, London, Tokyo, and Moscow: Edition q, inc., 1993), 33.
30. John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 11 - 12.
31. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence (New York: Times Books/Random House, 1995), 513, 518 - 540.
32. Our Course Remains Unchanged: Peace and Progress (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1985), passim and Mikhail Gorbachev, "On the Convening of the 27 CPSU Congress", April 23, 1985) in For the Forthcoming XXVlIth CPSU Congress (Moscow: Novosti, 1985), passim.
33. Our Course Remains Unchanged, 14 - 15.
34. David Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above; The Demise of the Soviet System (London and New York: Routledge 1997), 78, 82.
35. Kotz and Weir, 78.
36. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 70 - 71.
37. Novikov and Bascio, 35.
38. Aslund, 81 - 82.
39. Gorbachev, For the Forthcoming XXVlI-th CPSU Congress. 23 - 24.
40. The un-translated memoirs of Vladimir Kryuchov, head of Soviet foreign intelligence, referred to by Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution, in. the USSR, 1985 – 91 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997), 193.
41. Fitzgerald, 286, 302.
42. Fitzgerald, 307.
43. D'Agostino, 86 - 87; Gill, 19 - 24; Novikov and Bascio, 35.
44. Gorbachev, Political Report, 106.
45. Gorbachev, Political Report, 115.
46. Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, and Singapore: The Free Press, 1998), 443.
47. Volkogonov, 450.
48. Joseph Gibbs, Gorbachev's Glasnost (College Station: Texas A &M University Press, 1999), 27.
49. Davidow, 8.
50. Gus Hall, The Power of Ideology (New York: New Outlook, 1989), 22.
51. Raissa Gorbachev, I Hope (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), 136.
52. Aslund, 26 - 27.
53. Ellman and Kontorovich, 14.
54. Aslund, 25.
55. Novikov and Bascio, 42.
56. Dunlop, 6 - 7.
57. Ellman and Kontorovich, 10,178.
58. Aslund, 35.
59. Kotz and Weir, 75 - 78.
60. Aganbegyan, 32 - 33.
61. Aganbegyan, 190 - 191.
62. Kotz and Weir, 78, 82.
63. Volkogonov, 464 - 465,
64. Ellman and Kontorovich, 22.
65. Aslund, 37 - 47, 55.
66. Aslund, 48 - 54,
67. Aslund, 88 - 100.
68. Aslund, 108.
69. Mikhail Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27-th Party Congress (Moscow: Novosti, 1986), 4 - 5, 26, 29, 40 - 46, 49, 86.
70. Neil Robinson, Ideology and the Collapse of the Soviet System (Aldershot, England and Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1995), 107 - 111.
71. Gibbs,23, 28 - 29,33.
72. Gorbachev, Memoirs 210.
73. Gorbachev, Political Report, 111.
74. Gibbs, 37.
75. John and Carol Garrard, Inside the Soviet Writers Union (New York: Free Press, 1990), 205.
76. Gibbs, 5 - 6, 8.
77. Alexander Yakovlev, The Fate of Marxism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993), x.
78. Jonathan Harris, The Public Politics of Aleksandr Nikolaevich Yakovlev, 1983 – 1989 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies, 1990), 8.
79. Yitzhak Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism, and the Soviet State, 1953 - 1991 (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1998), 94 - 100.
80. Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened (New York, London, et al.: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 111.
81. Garrard, 198 - 199; Brudny, 197; Harris, 20.
82. Garrard, 202, 207.
83. Gibbs, 39; Brudny, 197 - 198.
84. Garrard, 201.
85. Garrard, 199.
86. Roy Medvedev and Giulietto Chiesa, Time of Change; An Insider's View of Russia's Transformation (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 27 - 28.
87. Medvedev and Chiesa, 29 - 32.
88. Medvedev and Chiesa, 32.
89. Gibbs, 44.
90. Garrard, 202; Medvedev and Chiesa, 32.
91. Medvedev and Chiesa, 35.
92. Davidow, 21 - 22.
93. Graeme Gill, The Collapse of a Single - party System (Cambridge: Cambridge; University Press, 1994), 28 - 29.
94. For the Forthcoming XXII-th CPSU Congress, 24 - 25.
95. Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27-th Party Congress, 86.
96. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World (New York et al.; Harper & Row, 1987), 144 - 147.
97. Fitzgerald, 323.
98. "Blueprint for the Year 1986: Statement by Mikhail Gorbachev General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee," Pravda (January, 16, 1986) reprinted in Reprints from the Soviet Press (February 15, 1986), 5 - 20.
99. Fitzgerald, 364 - 365.
100. The Truth About Afghanistan: Documents, Facts, Eyewitness Reports (Moscow: Novosti, 1981); Phillip Bonosky, Afghanistan - Washington's Secret War (New York: International Publishers, 2001).
101. Brzezinski quoted by Pankaj Mishen, "The Making of Afghanistan," The New York Review of Books (November 15,2001), 20.
102. Sarah Mendelson, Changing Course: Ideas, Politics, & the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 69.
103. Mendelson, 60 - 61, 73 - 76.
104. The un-translated memoirs of Vladimir Kryuchkov, head of Soviet foreign intelligence, referred to by Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985 – 91 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997), 193.
105. Fitzgerald, 323.
106. Mikhail Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27-th Party Congress (Moscow: Novosti, 1986). 86.
107. Mendelson, 112. •.
108. Mendelson, 112.
109. Mendelson, 112 - 113.
110. Vladimir Shubin, ANC: A View from Moscow (Bellville, South Africa: Mayibuye Books, 1999), 340.
111. Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27-th Congress, 41 - 57.
112. Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27-th Congress, 41 - 57.
113. Gregory Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of the Soviet Underground," in Stephen S. Cohen et al., eds. The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 28.
114. Stephen F. Cohen, "Introduction," to Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), viii - xix.
115. Ligachev, 96, 100, passim.
116. D'Encausse, 10 - 12.
117. D'Encausse, 4,9,23 - 27, 31 - 33,40 - 41.
118. D'Agostino, 174.
1. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich, The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System (Armonk, New York, and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), 309.
2. Alexander Yakovlev, The Fate of Marxism in Russia (New Haven and London; Yale University Press, 1993), 227.
3. Mikhail Gorbachev, October and Perestroika: the Revolution Continues (Moscow Novosti Press Agency, 1987), 47.
4. Moshe Lewin, Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: from Bukharin to the Modern Reformers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), xiii, xvii.
5. Robert V. Daniels, "Soviet Society and American Soviet Studies: a Study in Success?" in Michael Cox, Rethinking The Soviet Collapse, (London and New York: Cassell, 1999), 121.
6. Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 15.
7. Robert G. Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 15.
8. Delia Luisa Lopez Garcia, "Economic Crisis, Adjustment, and Democracy in Cuba," in Jose Bell Lara, ed., Cuba in the 1990s (Havana: Editorial Jose Marti, 1999), 25.
9. Graeme Gill, The Collapse of a Single - party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 19 - 29.
10. Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina van den Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: Norton, 1989), 17.
11. Marshall I. Goldman, What Went Wrong With Perestroika? (New York: Norton, 1991), 102.
12. Stephen Kotkin, Armageddon Averted: the Soviet Collapse, 1970 - 2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 71 - 72.
13. Stephen F. Cohen, Reinterpreting the Soviet Experience (New York: Oxford University Press 1985), 126.
14. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 343,
15. Brown, 98.
16. Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution, (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 112.
17. Brown, 127.
18. Ligachev; 125; Brown, 127.
19. Howard Selsam, Socialism and Ethics, (New York: International Publishers, 1943), 92 - 99. Lenin held that the class values of the working class—solidarity, unity, cooperation, comradeship, etc., would become universal as socialist society became universal. The needs of the working class "create for it an ethics that is at one and the same time a class ethics and a human ethics embracing actually or potentially all men."
20. Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution m the USSR, 1985 - 1991 (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1997), 192 - 196.
21. Ligachev, 132,189. :
22. Ellman and Kantorovich, "The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the – Memoir Literature:," Europe - Asia Studies, 49, no. 2 (March 1997): 265.
23. Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened: His Triumphs and His Failure (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 156.
24. Anthony Jones and William Moskoff, Koops: The Rebirth of Entrepreneurship in the Soviet Union (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), xv.
25. Jones and Moskoff, 78.
26. Victor Perlo, "The Economic and Political Crisis in the USSR”, Political Affairs, 70, (August 1991): 15.
27. Gregory Grossman, "The Second Economy: Boon or Bane for the Reform of the First Economy?" in Economic Reforms in the Socialist World (London: Macmillan, 1989), 83.
28. John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 5.
29. Brown, 166.
30. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 32.
31. Ligachev, 318.
32. Hough, 154.
33. David M. Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above (New York: Routledge, 1997), 97.
34. Nina Andreyeva, "I Cannot Forgo My Principles," in Alexander Dallin and Gail W. Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System: From Crisis to Collapse (Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford: Westview Press, 1995), 288 - 296.
35. Leading proponents of this view are: Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs, 252 - 254; Anatoly Chernyaev, My Six Years with Gorbachev (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 2000), 153 - 160; Roy Medvedev and Giulietto Chiesa, Time of Change (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 189 - 206; Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened (New York et al.: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 204 - 213; Yitzhak M. Brudny, "The Heralds of Opposition to Perestroika," Ed A. Hewett and Victor H. Winston, eds. Milestones in Glasnost and Perestroika (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institute, 1991), 153 - 189; Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 191 - 197; David M. Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 67 - 68; Joseph Gibbs, Gorbachev's Glasnost (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999), 66 - 73.
36. Medvedev and Chiesa, 190,
37. Brudny, 167.
38. Kaiser, 204.
39. Andreyeva, passim.
40. Kaiser, 204.
41. Andreyeva, 290 - 293.
42. Kaiser, 204.
43. Andreyeva, 294 - 295.
44. Gibbs, 67.
45. Stephen F. Cohen, "Introduetion," to Ligachey, x, xxxii.
46. Gorbachev, 252.
47. Medvedev and Chiesa, 192.
48. Andreyeva, 296.
49. Gibbs, 67.
50. Ligachev, 301.
51. Valery Boldin, Ten Years That Shook the World: The Gorbachev Era as Witnessed By His Chief of Staff (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 168.
52. Gibbs.68.
53. Medvedev and Chiesa, 193.
54. Ligachev, 302.
55. Ligachev, 304 - 308.
56. Ligachev, 308.
57. Medvedev and Chiesa, 193.
58. Medvedev and Chiesa, 194 - 196.
59. Kaiser, 213.
60. Medvedev and Chiesa, 196.
61. Chernyaev, 154.
62. Medvedev and Chiesa, 196.
63. Kaiser, 213.
64. Gibbs,71.
65. Medvedev and Chiesa, 196.
66. Chernyaev, 156.
67. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Soviet Experiment ("New York, Oxford University Press, 1998), 461.
68. Ligachev, 152.
69. Hough, 106.
70. William Taubman, Khrushchev: the Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2003), 587, 782. Alexander Yakovlev was a link between the Khrushchev and Gorbachev eras on the proposal to divide the Party, according to this biography, which seems likely to be the standard scholarly work in English for some time. Taubman interviewed Yakovlev, author of the party - splitting proposal to Gorbachev. Having worked in Moscow under Khrushchev in 1962, Yakovlev described to Taubman the CC Secretariat's resistance to Khrushchev's division of the Party into industrial and rural segments. Taubman states that, at the October 1964 Plenum that endorsed Khrushchev's forced retirement, certain leaders characterized the party's division as "the worst confusion our Soviet state has known since it was created."
71. Brown, 106.
72. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 282.
73. William E. Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 209.
74. Brown, 101; Gorbachev, Memoirs, 605.
75. P. Fedosyev, ed. What Is Democratic Socialism? (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), 18.
76. Norman Markowitz, "On Holz's Defense of Leninism," Nature, Society and Thought 6, no.3, 354.
77. Brown, 42, 328.
78. Odom, 115.
79. Ligachev, 15.
80. Andrew Murray, Flashpoint: World War III (London: Pluto Press, 1996), 42.
81. D'Agostino, 117 - 118.
82. D'Agostino, 119.
83. D'Agostino, 119.
84. Odom, 151
85. Odom, 137.
86. Mikhail Gorbachev, October and Perestroika: the Revolution Continues (Moscow; Novosti Press Agency, 1987), 6,6 - 67.
87. Odom, 102.
88. Sarah E. Mendelson, Changing Course: Ideas, Politics, and the Soviet Withdrawal, from Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 111. A strongly favorable assessment of Najibullah can be found in Philip Bonosky, Afghanistan: Washington's Secret War (New York: International Publishers, 2001).
89. Mendelson, 122,
90. Mendelson, 117.
91. Vladimir Shubin, ANC: A View from Moscow (Bellville, South Africa; Mayibuyc Books, University of Western Cape, 1999). 340 - 341.
92. V. I. Lenin, Questions of National Policy and Proletarian internationalism (Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1970), 60.
93. David Lane, The Rise and the Fall of Slate Socialism (Cambridge:, Polity Press; 19.9;6), 124.
94. ElIman and Kantorovieh, 134.
95. Ellman and Kantorovich, 145.
96. Ellman and Kantorovich, 188.
97. Ligachcev, 339.
98. Ellman and Kantorovich, 2.
99. Ellman and Kantorovich, 150,
100. Ellman and Kantorovich, 189.
101. S. Frederick Starr, "A Usable Past," in Alexander Dallin and Gail Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System from Crisis to Collapse (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), 14 - 15.
102. Anne White, Democralization in Russia under Gorbachev 1985 - 91: The Birth of a Voluntary Sector (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999),6 - 12.
103. Ellman and Kantorovich, 150.
104. Stephen F. Cohen, Bucharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Vintage, 1975), 36.
105. Yuri Andropov, "In Celebration of the Sixtieth Anniversary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics," A Reader on Social Sciences (Moscow: Progress, 1985). 381: John and Margrit Pittman, Peaceful Coexistence: Its Theory and Practice in the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers. 1964), 85.
106. Yitzhak M. Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State (Cambridge: Harvard University. 1998), 17.
107. Odom, 407.
108. l.igachev, 143.
109. Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923 - 39 (lthaca: Cornel University Press, 2001), 1
110. Suny. 464.
111. D'Agostino. 178
112. Ellman and Kantorovich, "The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the Memoir Literature," 268 - 269.
113. Marshall I. Goldman, What Went Wrong with Perestroika (New York: Norton, 1991), 128 - 136.
114. Gregory Grossman, "Sub - Rosa Privatization and Marketization in the USSR," Annals off the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 507, (January 1990), 49.
1. Graeme Gill, The Collapse of a Single - party System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 78.
2. Stanislav Menshikov, Catastrophe or Catharsis ? The Soviet Economy Today (London: Inter - Verso, 1990), 41.
3. Roy Medvedev, Post - Soviet Russia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000),.47.
4. Carl A. Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership: With an Epilogue on Gorbachev (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1990), 235.
5. Seamus Milne, "Catastroika has not only been a disaster for Russia: a decade on, enthusiasm for the Soviet collapse looks misplaced." The Guardian (London), 16 August 2001.
6. John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 94.
7. Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 193.
8. Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985 – 1991 (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1997), 502.
9. Anatoly Chernyaev, My Six Years with Gorbachev (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 2000), 135.
10. Chernyaev. 299.
11. Vadim Volkov, Violent Entrepreneurs: the Use of Force in the Making of Russian Capitalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 24. Volkov confirms that the bogus "coops," created by the ill-named 1988 Law on Cooperatives, led to explosive growth in private business enterprise and corresponding growth in violent business protection rackets. In 1992, with Yeltsin in power, the less well - known Law on Private Protection and Detective Activity actually legalized private protection rackets and "for several years formally sanctioned many of the activities already pursued by racketeering gangs."
12. Hough, 503.
13. Hough, 260.
14. Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened: His Triumphs and His Failure (New York; Simon and Schuster, 1991), 409.
15. Hough, 249.
16. William F. Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 439.
17. Chernyaev, 255.
18. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 475.
19. Peter Schweizer, Victory! The Reagan Administration's Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1994), 14.
20. Odom, 474.
21. Hough,432.
22. Hough,502.
23. Pekka Sutela, Economic Thought and Economic Reform in the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991), 5. Outside the Soviet Union, bourgeois economists stated bluntly that "socialist reform" economics aimed to incorporate capitalist elements into socialism until capitalism was fully restored. According to Sutela, "Seeing the inefficiency and indeed impossibility of such an [orthodox Communist, i.e., largely publicly owned and centrally planned economic model, early reformers relaxed some of the orthodox assumptions and tended to see the capitalist corporation as their model. Further along the road, more and more characteristics of capitalism were added to the normative image of efficient socialism until - by the late eighties - a transition to genuine capitalism was advocated and also practiced in such countries as Hungary and Poland." Dr. Sutela, a Soviet affairs specialist, worked for the Bank of Finland.
24. Chernyaev, 257.
25. Gill, 95.
26. Marshall I. Goldman, What Went Wrong with Perestroika? (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 193.
27. Brown, 184
28. Gill, 68.
29. Chernyaev, 173.
30. Gill, 74.
31. Chernyaev, 175.
32. Chernyaev, 179.
33. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), 91 - 93.
34. Vitali I. Vorotnikov, Mi Verdad: Notas y Reflexiones del Diario de Trabajo de un Miembro del Buro Politico del PCUS (Havana: Casa Editorial Abril, 1995), 486.
35. Gill, 78.
36. Gill, 79.
37. Gill, 79.
38. Dunlop,79.
39. David M. Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above (New York: Routledge, 1997), 102.
40. Dunlop, 81.
41. Dunlop, 79 - 81.
42. Dunlop, 106 - 107.
43. Kotz and Weir, 139.
44. Ligachev, 347,
45. Dunlop, 82.
46. Dunlop, 51.
47. Gill, 94 - 95.
48. Gill, 104.
49. Gill, 104.
50. Ligachev, 89.
51. P. N. Fedoseyev, ed. What Is Democratic Socialism? (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), 127.
52. Gill, 115.
53. Gill, 115
54. Gill, 117.
55. Gill, 135.
56. Ligachev, 368.
57. Ligachev, 177 - 179.
58. Gill, 144.
59. Vorotnikov, 486.
60. Chernyaev, 189.
61. Chernyaev, 189.
62. Ligachev, xxiii.
63. Chernyaev, 270.
64. Ligachev, 44.
65. Valery Boldin, Ten Years That Shook the World: The Gorbachev Era as Witnessed by His Chief of Staff (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 258.
66. Boldin, 282.
67. Stephen Handelman, Comrade Criminal: Russia's New Mafiya (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 311.
68. Stephen Kotkin, Armageddon Averted: the Soviet Collapse 1970 - 2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ix.
69. Medvedev, 47.
70. Alexander Dallin and Gail W. Lapidus, eds. The Soviet System:. From Crisis to Collapse Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995), 75.
71. Dunlop,72.
72. Dunlop, 80.
73. Kaiser, 378.
74. Hough, 416.
75. George W. Breslauer, Gorbachev and Yeltsin as Leaders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 170.
76. Boris Kargarlitsky, Restoration in Russia: Why Capitalism Failed (London: Verso, 1995), 83.
77. Goldman, 128.
78. Hough, 208.
79. Ligachev, 339.
80. Kotz and Weir, 80.
81. Hough, 343.
82. William Moskoff, Hard Times: Impoverishment and Protest in the Perestroika Years. The Soviet Union 1985 - 91 (Armonk, New York and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), 28.
83. Moskoff, 43,46.
84. Moskoff, 59.
85. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kantorovich, The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System (Armonk, New York and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1998), 22,
86. Hough, 359.
87. Kaiser, 378.
88. Abel Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988; Inside Perestroika: the Future of the Soviet Economy (New York: Harper and Row, 1989).
89. Michael Alexeev and William Pyle, "A Note on Measuring the Unofficial Economy in the former Soviet Republics," William Davidson Institute Working Papers, University of Michigan Business School, no. 436, table #6, (July 2001): 19. The table is presented here as presented by Alexeev and Pyle. It seems doubtful, however, that their method yields estimates accurate to a tenth of a percentage point. We believe the estimates should be understood merely as a reasonable indicator of the order of magnitude of the second economy in each republic and a reasonable indicator of its growth rate. Thus, in Estonia and Uzbekistan, the exceptional cases, the slight decline in share should be interpreted as an indicator of little or no change in the second economy's role in the total economy of those republics in the period under review.
90. Roy Medvedev, Post Soviet Russia (New York: Columbia, 2000), 170 - 171.
91. Steven L. Solnick, Stealing the Stale, Control and Collapse in Soviet Institutions (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 116.
92. Handelman, 56.
93. Handelman, 71.
94. Hough,130.
95. Anthony Jones and William Moskoff, eds. The Great Market Debate in Soviet Economics, An Anthology (Armonk, New York and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991), ix.
96. Hough,134.
97. Hough, 139.
98. Hough, 360.
99. Hough, 363.
100. Carolyn McGirfert Ekedahl and Melvin A. Goodman, The Wars of Eduard Shevardnadze (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1997), 4.
101. Chernyaev, 83.
102. David Remnick, Resurrection: the Struggle for a New Russia (New York: Vintage Books, 1997), 17.
103. Ligachev, 152.
104. Hough, 374.
105. Arch Puddington, Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Liberty and Radio Free Europe (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2000), 291.
106. Dunlop, 90.
107. Dunlop, 90. •
108. Dunlop, 91.
109. V. I. Lenin, Selected Works, 1, (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 625. "From their daily experience the masses know perfectly well the value of geographical and economic ties, and the advantages of a big market and a big state. They will, therefore, resort to secession only when national oppression and national friction make joint life absolutely intolerable and hinder any and all economic intercourse."
110 Geoffrey Hosking, The First Socialist Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 473.
111. Kaiser, 315.
112. Brown, 280 - 282.
113. Hosking, 473.
114. Dunlop, 55.
115. Hough, 388.
116. Odom, 351.
117. Hough, 406.
118. Kotz and Weir, 266.
119. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 501.
120. Chernyaev, 148.
121. Fred Coleman, The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire: Forty Years that Shook the World from Stalin to Yeltsin (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), 312.
122. Chernyaev, 320, 327.
123. Chernyaev, 297, 298.
124. Chernyaev, 305.
125. Chernyaev, 356.
126. Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 310.
127. Hough, 428.
128. Hough, 439.
129. Hough, 455.
130. Hough, 429.
131. Dunlop, 196 - 197.
132. Odom, 320.
133. Hough, 431.
134. Dunlop, 217.
135. Dunlop, 253.
136. Amy Knight, Spies Without Cloaks (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 18.
137. Dunlop, 253.
138. Hough, 431.
139. Knight, 18.
140. Hough,432.
141. Dunlop, 199.
142. Dunlop, 201.
143. Dunlop, 198.
144. Odom, 342.
145. Knight, 18.
146. Hough,433.
147. Hough, 432.
148. Odom, 353, 354.
149. Odom, 355.
150. Hough, 436.
151. Dunlop, 186.
152. Dunlop, 195.
153. Odom, 341.
154. Vladimir Shubin, ANC: View from Moscow (Bellville, South Africa; Mayibuye Books, 1999), 390.
1. Alexander Dallin, "Causes of the Collapse of the USSR," in Alexander Dallin and Gail Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System from Crisis to Collapse (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), 686.
2. Fedor Burlatsky, Khrushchev and the First Russian Spring: the Era of Khrushchev through the Eyes of His Adviser (New York: Scribners, 1992), 276.
3. "Socialism in the Soviet Union: Lessons and Perspectives. From the Program of the Fourth Congress of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation," 20 April 1997 in Nature, Society, and Thought, 10, no. 3 (1997): 421.
4. Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985 - 1991 (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1997), 15.
5. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, (New York; Avon Books, 1992), xiii.
6. Vladimir Treml and Michael Alexeev, "The Second Economy and the Destabilizing Effect of Its Growth on the State Economy of the Soviet Union: 1965 - 1989," Berkeley – Duke Occasional Papers, no. 36, (1993): 2.
7. Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina van den Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: Norton, 1989), 25.
8. Domenico Losurdo, "Flight from History? The Communist Movement between Self-criticism and Self-contempt," Nature, Society, and Thought, 13, no. 4, (2000): 507.
9. Stephen F. Cohen, "American Journalism and Russia's Tragedy." The Nation 2 October 2000, 23 December 2000, <http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?I=20001002&s=cohen.
10. Leninism and the World Revolutionary Working-class Movement, (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1971), 133.
11. John and Margrit Pittman, Peaceful Coexistence (New York: International Publishers, 1964), 69.
12. Albert Szymanski, "The Class Basis of Political Processes in the Soviet Union," Science and Society, 62, (winter 1978 - 79): 426 - 457.
13. Since we speak of both egalitarian and non-egalitarian aspects of Soviet society, perhaps a clarification is necessary. A number of things were true at once. Wage-leveling increased in Soviet industry starting with Khrushchev and served to reduce worker productivity incentives which in turn reduced overall Soviet economic growth rate, though there were other growth - inhibiting factors too. Nevertheless, the general egalitarianism promoted by Soviet policies was a positive achievement. Though inequality caused by the ill - gotten gains in the second economy increased over time, it remained paltry by capitalist and especially by U.S. standards. Similarly, the material privileges of top Party and state officials were a reality, but they too were modest compared to elite privileges in capitalist countries. Still, the inequality caused by illegal money - making and official privilege were politically objectionable from a Leninist standpoint and were politically unwise because they became an easy target for domestic and foreign anti-Communists.
14. Boris N. Ponomarev, Communism in a Changing World (New York: Sphinx Press, 1983), 78.
15. Gus Hall, Socialism and Capitalism in a Changing World (New York: New Outlook Publishers, 1990), 50 - 53.
16. Gus Hall, "Marxism - Leninism in the World Struggle against Opportunism," (speech at Political Affairs Forum, 28 February 1982) Political Affairs Reprint, 5.
17. Gus Hall, "The World We Preserve Must Be Livable," World Marxist Review, 35, no. 5 (May 1988): 22 - 23.
18. Bertell Ollman, "Market Mystification in Capitalist and Market Socialist Societies," in Market Socialism: the Debate among Socialists (New York: Routledge, 1998), 99.
19. David Laibman, "Editorial Perspectives, Socialism: Alternative Visions and Models," Science and Society, 56, no. 1 (spring 1992): 4.
20. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kantorovich, The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System: an Insider's History (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1998), 34 - 35.
21. Anders Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1995), 13.
22. TremI and Alexeev, 25 - 26.
23. Bahman Azad, Heroic Struggle, Bitter Defeat (New York: International, 2000), 116.
24. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: the Soviet Economy Today (New York: International Publishers, 1980), 337.
25. Ronald L. Meek, Studies in the Labour Theory of Value (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1973), 262.
26. Joseph V. Stalin, Selected Works (Davis, California: Cardinal Publishers, 1971), 324.
27. Maurice Dobb, Soviet Economic Development since 1917 (New York: International Publishers, 1968), 334; Meek, 282.
28. A. M. Rumyantsev, Categories and Laws of the Political Economy of Communism (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1969), 225.
29. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca: Cornell, 1989), 4.
30. David M. Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above (New York: Routledge, 1997), 67.
31. Tatyana Zaslavskaya, The Second Socialist Revolution, an Alternative Soviet Strategy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), ix.
32. Stalin, 368.
33. Yuri Andropov, "Speech at the CPSU Central Committee Meeting," June 15, 1983 (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1983), 22.
34. Michael Parenti, BIackshirts and Reds (San Francisco: City Lights, 1997), 60 - 61.
35. Arguably, Laos can be added to the list. Laos has a Marxist-Leninist government that seeks to maintain an orientation toward socialism, and over time, of course, it can develop into a socialist society. The development hurdles are enormous; Presently the country is characterized by the UN as among the "least developed" states, a status owing in part, no doubt, to savage U.S. bombardment during the Indochina War. By and large, since 1986, in step with its neighbor Vietnam, Laos, led by the People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP), has pursued a renewal strategy to create a multi - tiered economy with a public sector, a foreign sector, and domestic private sector. Laos has sought partial integration into the world capitalist economy, See official website of Laos at <http://www.laoembassy.com>
36. Carl Riskin, China's Political Economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 290.
37. Al L. Sargis, "Ideological Tendencies and Reform Policy in China's Primary Stage of Socialism," Nature, Society, and Thought, 11, no. 4, (1998): 396.
38. Jose Bell Lara, ed., Cuba in the 1990s (Havana: Institute Cubano del Libro, Editorial Jose Marti, 1999), 111, 87.
39. Evelio Vilarino Ruiz, Cuba: Socialist Economic Reform and Modernization (Havana: Editorial Jose Marti, 1998), 16 - 17.
40. Rajan Menon, "Post-Mortem: the Causes and Consequences of the Soviet Collapse," The Harriman Review, 7, nos. 10 - 12, (1994): 9.
41. Domenico Losurdo, "Flight from History? The Communist Movement between Self-criticism and Self-contempt," Nature, Society, and Thought, 13, no. 4, (2000): 498.
42. Stephen F. Cohen, Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Soviet Russia (New York: Norton, 2001), 208.
43. David M. Kotz, "Is Russia Becoming Capitalist?" Science and Society, 65, no. 2, (summer 2001): 157 - 181.
44. Roy Medvedev, Post Soviet Russia (New York: Columbia University, 2000), 51.
45. lan Fisher, "As Poland Endures Hard Times, Capitalism Comes under Attack," New York Times 12 June 2002, 14 July 2002, <http://query.nytimes.com/search/article-page.html?res=9FODE5DF163CF931A25755COA9649C8B63>.
46. G. A. Kozlov, ed. Political Economy: Socialism (Moscow: Progress, 1977), 80 - 81.
47. "Mr. X" George Kennan, "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs (July 1947): 566 - 82, quoted in Gregory Grossman, "Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of the Soviet Underground," in Stephen S. Cohen et al., eds. The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 24 - 50.
48. Azad, 179.
49. Kenneth Neill Cameron, Stalin. - Man of Contradiction (Toronto: NC Press Ltd., 1987), 7.
50. Mikhail Gorbachev, October and Perestroika: The Revolution Continues (Moscow: Novosti, 1987), 26.
51. Hans Heinz Holz, "The Downfall and Future of Socialism," Nature, Society, and Thought 5, no. 3, (1992): 121.
52. Herbert Aptheker, "The Soviet Collapse and the Surrounding Capitalist World," Science and Society, 62, no. 2, (summer 1998): 284.
53. Michael Parenti, BIackshirts and Reds (San Francisco: City Lights, 1997), 77.
54. Parenti, 76 - 86.
55. Aileen Kelly, "In the Promised Land," The New York Review of Books 68, no. 19, (November 29,2001): 45.
56. Stephane Courtois et al., eds. The Black Book of Communism, Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999).
57. Yuri Krasin, The Dialectics of Revolutionary Process (Moscow: Novosti, 1973), 7. ,
58. Anthony Coughlan, "Social Democracy and National Independence," (unpublished article. May 1993), 4.
59. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 264.
60. "Social Dimensions of Globalization," ICFTU submission to the first meeting of the ILO World Commission on Globalization (25 - 26 March 2002) International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, Brussels, 2002, 1.
1. Fred Halliday, "A Singular Collapse: The Soviet Union, Market Pressure, and Interstate Competition," Contention Magazine (1992). '
2. We have adapted and supplemented the explanations identified by Kotz and Weir, David Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above: The Demise of the Soviet System (New York and London: Routledge, 1997), 3 - 5.
3. Jack Matlock, Autopsy on an Empire (New York: Random House, 1995), 648.
4. See the summaries and critiques of Malia and Pipes in Walter Laqueur, The Dream That: Failed (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), passim and Alexander Dallin, "Causes of the Collapse of the USSR," Post-Soviet Affairs 8 (1992): 279 - 282.
5. Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Singapore: The Free Press, 1998).
6. Roy Medvedev and Giulietto Chiesa, Time of Change: An Insider's View, of Russia’s Transformation (New York: Pantheon, 1989).
7. Elizabeth Teague, "The Fate of the Working Class," in Robert Daniels, ed. Soviet Communism from Reform to Collapse (Lexington, Mass.: Heath and Company, 1995), 352 - 365.
8. Stephen White, "The Minorities Struggle for Sovereignty," in Daniels, 216 - 229; Yitzhac Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953 – 1991 (Cambridge, Mass., and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1998), and Helene d'Encausse, The End of the Soviet Empire: The Triumph of Nations (New York: A New Republic Books, Basic Books, A Division of Harper Collins, 1994). '
9. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 4 - 5.
10. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich, - The Destruction of the Soviet System: An Insider's History (Armonk, New York, and London, England: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), 17.
11. Ellman and Kontorovich, 30 - 40.
12. Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 272 - 273, 285, 296.
13. New York Times (February 26, 2001).
14. Andre Gunder Frank, "What Went Wrong in the 'Socialist' East?" Humboldt Journal of Social Relations 24, no. 1 and 2; 179 - 184.
15. Manuel Castells and Emma Kiselova, The Collapse of Soviet Communism: A View From the Information Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 3.
16. Laqueur, 58 - 59.
17. Peter Schweizer, Victory: The Reagan Administration's Secret Strategy that Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1994); Sean Gervasi, "A Full Court Press: the Destabilization of the Soviet Union," Covert Action 35 (Fall, 1990): 21 - 26.
18. Peter Schweizer, Reagan's War [Bound galley copy] (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 3 - 4.
19. Prances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War (New York et al.; Simon & Schuster, 2000),
20. Fitzgerald, 474.
21. Ellman and Kontorovich, 57.
22. Ellman and Kontorovich, 59.
23. Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (New York: Merit Publishers, 1965), 252 – 254.
24. David Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above: The Demise of the Soviet System (New York and London: Routledge, 1997).
25. Jerry F. Hough, Democratization and Revolution, in the USSR, 1985 - 1991 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997).
26. Steven L. Solnick, Stealing the State: Control and Collapse in Soviet Institutions (Cambridge, Mass. and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1998).
27. Bahman Azad, Heroic Struggle Bitter Defeat: Factors Contributing to the Dismantling of the Socialist State in the USSR (New York: International Publishers, 2000).
28. Ellman and Kontorovich, 27.
29. Solnick, passim.
30. Azad, 115 - 118, 120, 129 - 134.
31. Azad, 162.
32. See the "Conclusion" for a full discussion of these positions.
33. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Manifesto of the Communist Party," in Selected Works (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1962), 53.
34. C. B. Macpherson, The Real World of Democracy: (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), passim.
35. E. Ambartsumov, F. Burlatsky, Y. Krasin, and E. Pletnyov, Real Socialism… for a working class estimate (reprint from New Times) (New York: New Outlook Publishers, [1978]), 10.
36. For a good summary of studies of Soviet political institutions, see Albert Szymanski, "The Class Basis of Political Processes in the Soviet Union," Science & Society (Winter, 1978 - 79): 426 - 457.
37. Stephen Cohen, Failed Crusade: America and. the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2000), 41.
38. Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1996).
39. Robert V. Daniel, "Was Communism Reformable?" The Nation, 3 January 2000, 26.
40. Euvgeny Novikov and Patrick Bascio, Gorbachev and the Collapse of the Soviet Communist Party (New York: Peter Lang, 1994), 39 - 44.
41. Anthony D'Agostino, Gorbachev's Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), passim.
42. "1992 Castro Interviewed on :Soviet Collapse, Stalin," El Nuevo Diario [Managua] (3 June 1992).'